Mustafa Naili, Crete's Albanian Governor 1824 - 1851
You may wonder why I am asking the question. Crete is firmly Greek, fought in the 19th century for decades to join the motherland and only a few Cretans speak Albanian. But the island was ruled by an Albanian family for almost 30 years. How did this happen?
The answer lies in the weakness of the Ottoman Empire during the Napoleonic wars. The Sultan was fighting wars on several fronts and suffered from imperial overstretch. Not only was he continuously at war with his arch enemy, the Safavid Persians, he also had to fight the Arab Wahabis, who occupied the holy sites of Mekka and Medina. In addition, new enemies popped up to carve up his empire. In three wars, Russia took control of the Black Sean, Crimea, Odessa and Bessarabia (1768-1774, 1787-1792, 1806-1812). At the same time (1799), Napoleon invaded and conquered Egypt. And ever so often the Royal Navy attacked. Every border of the Ottoman Empire was threatened.
Russian Victory at Ochakiv gave the Tsar in 1788 full control over the Dnipro River (Kherson)
The Ottoman army was not up to the challenge. The once feared Janissaries (Christian boys turned into Ottoman storm troopers) had become a political caste more interested in pro-tecting their fiefs. The same was true for the once fearsome Mamluks in Egypt – allied to the Ottoman since 1517 – who proved unable to stop Napoleon. The Ottoman military was in desperate need for reforms, new leadership, modern equipment and soldiers who wanted to fight. Sultan Selim III (1789 – 1806) was the man to carry them out. He introduced conscription, professionalized the training and brought in foreign instructors. By 1806, his newly founded Nizam-I Cedid Corps (New Order) had 23’000 soldiers. The Janissaries, fearing for their privileges and cozy life, would have none of it. They deposed the Selim III in 1806 and killed him 2 years later.
Sultan Selim III holding an Audience in Front of the Gate of Felicity in his Palace
With no capable troops, Selim III was forced to team up with the British to kick the “Frogs” out of Egypt. He hired Albanian volunteers to fight under Mehmed Ali, a tax collector from Kavala, 100 miles east of Thessaloniki. The English General Abercrombie did not think much of his new Albanian allies. They were ferocious fighters but had no tactical training. The British only used them as irregulars and skirmishers.
The British Landing in Abukir and the March on Alexandria in 1801
Eventually, in January 1801, the British Expeditionary Corps invaded with 30’000 men near Alexandria. Quickly, it won decisive victories over the French under General Kleber. By end of March 1801, Alexandria was theirs and Cairo surrendered. Soon thereafter, the British Corps left – a few thousand Albanian warriors under Mehmet Ali were now in charge.
Mehmed Ali Pasha, skilful Warrior, talented Diplomat,
Rival to the Ottoman Sultan in Istanbul
The story could have ended here. But in 1821, the Greek rebelled against their Turkish rulers. Selim’s son Mahmud II had again to call on the Janissaries. He did not forget that they murdered his father though. In 1826, as soon as he had enough power, he dissolved the 123’000 men strong Janissaries. They did – of course – not go down without a fight and fought back. Mahmud II had to subdue them by shelling their barracks. 4’000 Janissaries died in the artillery fire, the survivors were executed or exiled. The Janissaries challenge was solved – but the Sultan had no army left. He had to ask Mehmed Ali Pasha in Egypt for help. In 1822, the first Egyptian divisions landed in Crete. Humanitarian behavior was not on the soldiers’ mind. They murdered and raped their way through Crete until any resistance was snuffed out. By 1824, they had won and Crete was a graveyard.
Idealised Depiction of the Greek War of Independence - Reality was far more gruesome
One of the men in Mehmed Ali’s army was the young Albanian Mustafa Naili. Born in 1798 in a mountain village on the Greek-Albanian border, he was to rise to prominence. His father Ismail and two of his uncles joined the Anglo-Ottoman expedition. After the British left, the 6’000 Albanians consolidated power, eliminated the Mamluks and and made Mehmed Ali the undisputed ruler of Egypt. Recognizing the status quo, the Sultan made him in 1805 a Governor. During these years, many Albanian fighters brought their families to their new country. Life in Egypt was far more pleasant than in Albania. Young Mustafa, his mother and his siblings moved to Cairo. Sadly, in 1805, their father passed away. Custody was then given to his uncle Hasan, one of Mehmed Ali’s trusted lieutenants. Not surprisingly, young Mustafa followed in his father’s footsteps and became a soldier in his early teens.
Mehmed Ali's Expansion from 1805 - 1851
By the time the Greek War of Independence started, Mustafa Naili was already a senior commander. He joined the campaign in Crete. In 1824, after the island was “pacified”, the Egyptian Army moved to the Peloponnese. As senior commander Mustafa Naili was placed in charge of the troops staying on the island. A few years later Mehmed Ali made him Governor of Candia (Heraklion). Mustafa Naili Pasha effectively run the island until 1851 when he was called back to Istanbul to hold three times the office of Grand Vizier (Prime Minister) of the Ottoman State.
Mustafa Naili Pasha as Grand Vizier in Istanbul
For almost thirty years, Mustafa Naili run Crete more or less independently. He was even in charge of his own foreign policy. Since he inherited his uncle’s estate which included a very generous pension of Mehmed Ali, he was one of Turkey’s richest men. The British saw him as a guarantor of stability and preferred the island remaining under his rule rather than giving it to newly independent Greece. As a wealthy person, Mustafa Naili was keenly interested in rebuilding Crete’s economy and making it prosperous again. An island in perpetual hate could not flourish. He offered peace and limited self-rule to the Christian majority and even married a Christian. His policies were mostly, but not always, successful. But he was well-respected by everyone - not only as a Governor - but also as an honest man.
Frangokastello where 385 Greek Rebels were killed in 1828 during Mustafa Naili's rule - many Cretan Greeks would never forgive him
The reason Mustafa Naili was called to Istanbul in 1851 had a lot to do with Mehmed Ali. The Egyptian ruler became so powerful that he tried twice to dethrone the Sultan – he failed only because of the interventions of the Europe’s Great Powers.
For the Ottomans, leaving a skilled, successful and wealthy warrior-statesman in power in Crete was too dangerous. "Keep your friends close – keep your enemies closer". After a state visit by the Sultan in 1850, Mustafa was called to Istanbul. The Sultan appreciated his skills but preferred to have such a talented man under close supervision. Mustafa did not return to Crete expect for 1866-67 when he was sent to quell another rebellion. But he did not succeed. Mustafa Naili died in 1871 in Istanbul. The warrior who had tried to stop the endless cycle of violence between Turks and Greeks is buried in the Fathi Mosque in Istanbul - far away from his native Albania - far away from his beloved Crete.
Fathi Mosque in Istanbul overlooking the Golden Horn and Galata
If you want to read more details, there is this lovely bio on Cornucopia, the magazine for connaisseurs of Turkey: https://www.cornucopia.net/magazine/articles/the-princely-pasha-of-crete/
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